The 19th century was a period of significant change in British poetry. It witnessed the flourishing of some of the most notable poets in history, such as Lord Byron, John Keats, and William Wordsworth. Yet, nestled in this literary landscape was Arthur Hugh Clough, whose poetry, though not as widely recognized as that of his contemporaries, contributed profoundly to the evolution of British poetry. Clough’s works, infused with themes of doubt, faith, and the search for meaning in an increasingly uncertain world, provide a fascinating window into the intellectual and emotional challenges of his time.
This article aims to explore the life, works, and literary contributions of Arthur Hugh Clough, situating him within the broader context of 19th-century British poetry. In doing so, we will compare him to his contemporaries and examine how his unique style and thematic concerns influenced the development of British poetry during this transformative period.
Arthur Hugh Clough
Arthur Hugh Clough was born on January 1, 1819, in Liverpool, England, to a family with strong connections to education and the Church. His father, an Anglican clergyman, provided a structured, intellectual upbringing, which greatly influenced Clough’s early worldview. Raised in a family that valued learning, Clough went on to attend Rugby School and later Balliol College, Oxford. His time at Oxford proved pivotal in shaping his literary interests and political inclinations.
During his years at Oxford, Clough became close friends with the influential poet and critic Matthew Arnold, with whom he shared similar intellectual concerns. The friendship between Clough and Arnold would later become a point of literary focus, as Arnold’s more polished, conventional style contrasted with Clough’s more experimental approach. Together, these men would represent two distinct strains of British poetry during the 19th century: one that embraced tradition and another that questioned established norms.
Clough’s education and experiences at Oxford were formative in his development as a poet, but it was his exposure to the intellectual ferment of early Victorian England that truly shaped his poetic identity. The rise of industrialization, the questioning of religious faith, and the growing disillusionment with the established political order were central themes that Clough grappled with throughout his life and work.
Themes in Clough’s Poetry
One of the central themes in Arthur Hugh Clough’s poetry is the tension between faith and doubt. This existential struggle reflects the intellectual currents of the 19th century, when many were grappling with the implications of scientific discoveries, such as Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, which seemed to challenge traditional religious beliefs. Clough’s poetry frequently deals with the anxiety of a world in which previously unquestioned truths were now open to scrutiny.
In his best-known work, The Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich (1848), Clough introduces readers to a group of students who engage in a dialogue about religion, politics, and morality. The poem’s setting—a Scottish village—becomes a microcosm for the larger debates within British society. In the poem, Clough reflects on the challenges of reconciling intellectual freedom with the moral and religious constraints imposed by society. Through the characters’ interactions, Clough explores themes of disillusionment and the search for meaning, which would become central to much of his later poetry.
Another recurring theme in Clough’s poetry is the conflict between the individual and society. In poems such as Amours de Voyage (1849) and The Latest Decalogue (1860), Clough explores the limitations and hypocrisies of social conventions. In these works, Clough critiques the moralism of Victorian society, questioning the legitimacy of societal norms and the extent to which they stifle individual freedom.
Clough’s exploration of individualism and societal expectations places him in a literary tradition that includes other 19th-century British poets such as Matthew Arnold and Alfred, Lord Tennyson. However, unlike Arnold, who often sought to affirm the values of British society in the face of modern challenges, Clough expressed a more skeptical and critical stance toward these conventions. His works often carry a sense of melancholy, highlighting the difficulties of finding personal meaning in a world that seems increasingly fragmented and uncertain.
Clough’s Style and Influence
Arthur Hugh Clough’s poetic style is marked by its complexity and intellectual rigor. His works often employ a conversational tone, yet they are imbued with philosophical depth. This style allows Clough to engage directly with the reader, inviting them to ponder the themes of doubt, faith, and social morality alongside him. However, it also places Clough’s poetry in a more difficult space compared to some of his contemporaries.
In contrast to the romantic idealism of poets such as John Keats and Percy Bysshe Shelley, Clough’s work is more pragmatic and often imbued with a sense of melancholy. His exploration of doubt and disillusionment aligns him more closely with the poets of the Victorian era, such as Matthew Arnold and Elizabeth Barrett Browning, who grappled with similar intellectual and emotional dilemmas.
Clough’s works are also characterized by a distinctive use of meter and form. While he experimented with various poetic forms, his most famous work, The Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich, is written in blank verse. This choice of meter, which is typically associated with classical epic poetry, serves to elevate the intellectual nature of Clough’s narrative, positioning the poem as an exploration of the philosophical concerns of its characters.
Despite his relative obscurity today, Clough’s influence on later poets is significant. His willingness to address complex intellectual themes and his skepticism toward conventional religious and social beliefs paved the way for later poets, such as the Pre-Raphaelites and the Modernists, to explore similar issues in their own work. T.S. Eliot, for instance, was known to have been influenced by Clough’s exploration of doubt and his use of fragmented, disjointed forms in poetry.
Clough’s Poetry in the Context of 19th-Century British Poets
The 19th century was a period of dramatic change in British poetry, with the Romantic movement giving way to the more socially and intellectually engaged Victorian poets. In this context, Clough’s work stands out for its ambivalence toward both Romanticism and the increasingly moralistic tone of Victorian poetry.
The Romantic poets, such as Wordsworth, Byron, and Keats, celebrated the sublime and the transcendental, often invoking nature as a symbol of purity and inspiration. In contrast, Clough’s poetry questions the very foundations of belief, exploring the tension between personal experience and societal expectations. Where Byron’s rebellious spirit sought to transcend societal constraints, and where Wordsworth’s focus on nature celebrated the spiritual connection between humanity and the natural world, Clough’s poetry often reveals a sense of intellectual isolation.
Matthew Arnold, Clough’s close friend, was another poet who grappled with similar questions of faith and social change, but Arnold sought answers through a more formal embrace of culture and tradition. Arnold’s poetry, such as Dover Beach (1867), reflects his desire for stability in a rapidly changing world. Clough, on the other hand, remains more ambivalent, never fully embracing or rejecting the institutions of his time.
Additionally, poets like Alfred, Lord Tennyson, while also concerned with social and moral questions, tended to present more optimistic and idealistic visions of the future. Tennyson’s In Memoriam (1850) and The Charge of the Light Brigade (1854) demonstrate a reverence for British traditions and institutions, even in the face of loss and uncertainty. Clough, by contrast, never offers such easy resolutions. His work is permeated with doubt and ambiguity, reflecting a more complex, less optimistic view of the world.
Legacy and Final Years
Clough’s later years were marked by a growing disillusionment with both the religious and political systems of his time. In 1852, Clough moved to America, where he served as the head of the department of classics at the newly founded University of South Carolina. Despite his academic success, Clough struggled with the cultural and intellectual climate in America, and his personal life became increasingly troubled.
Clough died of a stroke on November 13, 1861, at the age of 42. His early death meant that he did not live to see the full impact of his poetic legacy. While he was recognized in his time, his works did not enjoy the widespread popularity of his contemporaries. However, in the years since his death, Clough’s reputation as a poet of intellectual depth and emotional resonance has grown, and his works are now regarded as crucial texts for understanding the intellectual currents of 19th-century British poetry.
Conclusion
Arthur Hugh Clough remains a fascinating figure in the pantheon of 19th-century British poets. His works, though less widely known than those of his contemporaries, offer profound insights into the challenges of faith, doubt, and individualism that defined the Victorian era. Through his poetry, Clough engages with the intellectual dilemmas of his time, presenting a voice that is at once skeptical and searching, disillusioned and deeply thoughtful. His exploration of the tensions between the individual and society, as well as his examination of the shifting ground of religious and moral belief, continues to resonate with readers and scholars alike. While he may not have achieved the lasting fame of some of his peers, Clough’s contribution to British poetry remains vital, offering a distinctive voice that challenges readers to confront the uncertainties of life and meaning.
